Sex Researchers:

Background

Sigmund Freud was born May 6, 1856 in Freiberg. He studied medicine at the University of Vienna between the years of 1873-1881, yet did not have high aspirations of becoming a doctor (Thurschwell, 2000). In 1882 he became engaged to Martha Berneys and returned to medicine to earn income. During this time he specialized in the central nervous system of humans leading to specialization in the treatment of nervous disorders such as hysteria (Boeree, 1997). From these experiences he began to investigate the psychological underlying to undiagnosed physical aliments as well as the human conscious. It was these experiences that contributed to the development of his psychoanalytic theory. He died in 1939, after becoming one of the most influential people in the discipline of psychology.

Freud examined the development of children in terms of psychosexual stages. Freud believed that each stage of development dealt with psychological conflict between sexual or biological urges and societal norms (Berk, 2003). During these conflicts, the three components of the conscious, the id, ego, and superego, negotiated for control of the behaviors (Boeree, 1997). According to Freud the id functioned on the pleasure principle, meaning that the primary goal was to achieve gratification of an urge. The ego was the more rational part of the mind. The ego also seeks gratification but in socially acceptable forms. The superego strives to balance the id and the ego but does not become fully formed until middle childhood. In order to achieve adulthood, children must negotiate through five stages, each marked by a different sexual conflict.

The oral stage is the first phase of psychosexual development (Berk, 2003). During this stage, infants between 0 to 1 year of age seek oral gratification through contact with the mother's breast or bottle. Following the oral stage is the anal stage, which is between 1 to 3 years of age. During this phase children seek to gain control over their bodily functions from which Freud believed they derived sexual pleasure. The next stage of development was the phallic stage. Children in this stage are between 3 to 6 years of age and must learn to control the impulse to gain pleasure through genital stimulation. It is during this phase that the emergence of the Oedipal and Electra conflicts arises in children. Between 6-11 years of age the latency stage occurs. In this stage, the sexual instincts begin to die down while the conscious or superego develops. The last stage of development occurs in adolescents and is know as the genital stage. During this stage children have a reemergence of sexual impulses similar to those found in the genital stage.

The emphasis that Freud placed on sexuality as a motivator for virtually every action that humans take has been questioned through the years. Some credence was given to the belief that much of life revolves around sexual instinct, but not to the extreme that Freud took it. Likewise, the stance that Freud took on the power of the unconscious mind was questioned. Many researchers and theorists believe that many of humans' choices are based on unconscious thought, but again, not to the extreme that Freud hypothesized (Boeree, 1997). On the upside, Freud did offer powerful theories on what motivates humans, and it is unfortunate that some scientists toss out the whole of his work, missing some of the important contributions that he made. Freud's belief that biology and society combine to influence people's thoughts and actions is something that will likely be acknowledged for a long time. It is also indisputable that certain traumas that occur in someone's lifetime (particularly in childhood) will have a huge effect on the choices they make later in life. And whether the term "unconscious" is used or not, the fact that there are underlying thoughts and feelings that are manifest in outward actions/manipulations/defenses is an undeniable reality (Boeree, 1997).

Humans seem to need an explanation of the cause of their actions, and Freud managed to hypothesize many of those causes. However, he has been charged by many in the medical/psychological field with inconsistency and incoherence in his theories. Many detractors have acknowledged the line that he drew between cause and effect, but question the validity of it. Psychoanalytic theory is still practiced, even though the jury is still out on how effective the work is in the long run and if healing does not take place, naturally over time for many, regardless of the therapeutic approach (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, n.d.). It has been suggested by critics of Freud's work that there is not enough evidence through scientific data to point to the efficacy of the psychoanalytic approach. Moreover, there are scientists who believe that Freud's theories about childhood trauma create fantasies and force fictional accounts from people who may fabricate stories to explain their dysfunction. It is suggested by others that there may be some validity to using these "stories" to help people understand their unconscious minds, without using Freud's judgmental approach. As this particular author comments, the fact of the matter is, no one has come up with an approach that far surpasses the psychoanalytic approach to interpreting and understanding human behavior (Thurschwell, 2000).

Berk, L. (2003). Child Development. Allyn and Bacon: New York.

Boeree, G. (1997). Sigmund Freud: 1856-1939. Retrieved September 12, 2004 from
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/freud.html

Thurschwell, P. (2000). Sigmund Freud. Routledge: London.

Boeree, C. G. (1997). Personality theories: Sigmund Freud. Retrieved September 10, 2004 from Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (n.d.).

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Retrieved September 10, 2004 from http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/freud.htm

Thurschwell, P. (2000). Sigmund Freud. London: Routledge.